Dominica Health Overview
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Hepatitis A and typhoid vaccinations are recommended for visitors to Dominica, and yellow fever vaccination is compulsory for entry for those coming from an infected area. Dengue fever is on the increase and visitors should take precautions against mosquito bites. There is a high prevalence of HIV/AIDS. Medical facilities on the island are limited, so health insurance with evacuation cover is recommended. It is advisable to bring personal medications. Food and drinks are safe to consume in hotels and restaurants, but it is preferable to drink bottled water.
View information on diseases: Yellow fever, Typhoid fever, Rabies, HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Diseases, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis A, Dengue Fever
Yellow fever
Cause: The yellow fever virus, an arbovirus of the Flavivirus genus. Transmission: Yellow fever in urban and some rural areas is transmitted by the bite of infective Aedes aegypti mosquitoes and by other mosquitoes in the forests of south America. The mosquitoes bite during daylight hours. Transmission occurs at altitudes up to 2,500 metres. Yellow fever virus infects humans and monkeys. In jungle and forest areas, monkeys are the main reservoir of infection, with transmission from monkey to monkey carried out by mosquitoes. The infective mosquitoes may bite humans who enter the forest area, usually causing sporadic cases or small outbreaks. In urban areas, monkeys are not involved and infection is transmitted among humans by mosquitoes. Introduction of infection into densely populated urban areas can lead to large epidemics of yellow fever. In Africa, an intermediate pattern of transmission is common in humid savannah regions. Mosquitoes infect both monkeys and humans, causing localized outbreaks. Nature of the disease: Although some infections are asymptomatic, most lead to an acute illness characterized by two phases. Initially, there is fever, muscular pain, headache, chills, anorexia, nausea and/or vomiting, often with bradycardia. About 15% of patients progress to a second phase after a few days, with resurgence of fever, development of jaundice, abdominal pain, vomiting and haemorrhagic manifestations; half of these patients die 10-14 days after onset of illness. Geographical distribution: The yellow fever virus is endemic in some tropical areas of Africa and central and south America. The number of epidemics has increased since the early 1980s. Other countries are considered to be at risk of introduction of yellow fever due to the presence of the vector and suitable primate hosts (including Asia, where yellow fever has never been reported). Risk for travellers: Travellers are at risk in all areas where yellow fever is endemic. The risk is greatest for visitors who enter forest and jungle areas. Prophylaxis (protective treatment): Vaccination. In some countries, yellow fever vaccination is mandatory for visitors. Precautions: Avoid mosquito bites during the day as well as at night. Endemic Countries: The World Health Organization considers the following countries to be endemic for yellow fever: Angola, Benin, Bolivia, Brazil, Burkino Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Colombia, Congo, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, French Guyana, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Panama, Peru, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Suriname, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania and Venezuela. Source: WHO.
Back to TopTyphoid fever
Cause: Salmonella typhi, the typhoid bacillus, which infects only humans. Similar paratyphoid and enteric fevers are caused by other species of Salmonella, which infect domestic animals as well as humans. Transmission: Infection with typhoid fever is transmitted by consumption of contaminated food or water. Occasionally direct faecal-oral transmission may occur. Shellfish taken from sewage-polluted beds are an important source of infection. Infection occurs through eating fruit and vegetables fertilized by night soil and eaten raw, and milk and milk products that have been contaminated by those in contact with them. Flies may transfer infection to foods, resulting in contamination that may be sufficient to cause human infection. Pollution of water sources may produce epidemics of typhoid fever, when large numbers of people use the same source of drinking water. Nature of the disease: Typhoid fever is a systemic disease of varying severity. Severe cases are characterized by gradual onset of fever, headache, malaise, anorexia and insomnia. Constipation is more common than diarrhoea in adults and older children. Without treatment, the disease progresses with sustained fever, bradycardia, hepatosplenomegaly, abdominal symptoms and, in some cases, pneumonia. In white-skinned patients, pink spots (papules), which fade on pressure, appear on the skin of the trunk in up to 50% of cases. In the third week, untreated cases develop additional gastrointestinal and other complications, which may prove fatal. Around 2-5% of those who contract typhoid fever become chronic carriers, as bacteria persist in the biliary tract after symptoms have resolved. Geographical distribution: Worldwide. The disease occurs most commonly in association with poor standards of hygiene in food preparation and handling and where sanitary disposal of sewage is lacking. Risk for travellers: Generally low risk for travellers, except in parts of north and west Africa, in south Asia and in Peru. Elsewhere, travellers are usually at risk only when exposed to low standards of hygiene with respect to food handling, control of drinking water quality, and sewage disposal. Prophylaxis (protective treatment): Vaccination. Precautions: Observe all precautions against exposure to foodborne and waterborne infections. Source: WHO.
Back to TopRabies
Cause: The rabies virus, a rhabdovirus of the genus Lyssavirus. Transmission: Rabies is a zoonotic disease affecting a wide range of domestic and wild animals, including bats. Infection of humans usually occurs through the bite of an infected animal. The virus is present in the saliva. Any other contact involving penetration of the skin occurring in an area where rabies is present should be treated with caution. In developing countries transmission is usually from dogs. Person-to-person transmission has not been documented. Nature of the disease: An acute viral encephalomyelitis, which is almost invariably fatal. The initial signs include a sense of apprehension, headache, fever, malaise and sensory changes around the site of the animal bite. Excitability, hallucinations and aerophobia are common, followed in some cases by fear of water (hydrophobia) due to spasms of the swallowing muscles, progressing to delirium, convulsions and death a few days after onset. A less common form, paralytic rabies, is characterized by loss of sensation, weakness, pain and paralysis. Geographical distribution: Rabies is present in animals in many countries worldwide. Most cases of human infection occur in developing countries. Risk for travellers: In rabies-endemic areas, travellers may be at risk if there is contact with both wild and domestic animals, including dogs and cats. Prophylaxis (protective treatment): Vaccination for travellers with a foreseeable significant risk of exposure to rabies or travelling to a hyperendemic area where modern rabies vaccine may not be available. Precautions: Avoid contact with wild animals and stray domestic animals, particularly dogs and cats, in rabies-endemic areas. If bitten by an animal that is potentially infected with rabies, or after other suspect contact, immediately clean the wound thoroughly with disinfectant or with soap or detergent and water. Medical assistance should be sought immediately. The vaccination status of the animal involved should not be a criterion for withholding post-exposure treatment, unless the vaccination has been thoroughly documented and vaccine of known potency has been used. In the case of domestic animals, the suspect animal should be kept under observation for a period of 10 days. Rabies post-exposure treatment: In a rabies-endemic area, the circumstances of an animal bite, other contact with the animal, and the animal's behaviour and appearance may suggest that it is rabid. In such situations, medical advice should be obtained immediately. Post-exposure treatment to prevent the establishment of rabies infection involves first-aid treatment of the wound followed by administration of rabies vaccine and antirabies immunoglobulin in the case of a bite or exchange of saliva. The administration of vaccine, and immunoglobulin if required, must be carried out, or directly supervised, by a physician. Source: WHO.
Back to TopHIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Diseases
The most important sexually transmitted diseases and infectious agents are HIV/AIDS, hepatitis B, syphilis, gonorrhoea, chlamydia infections, trichomoniasis, chancroid, genital herpes and genital warts. Transmission: Infection occurs during unprotected sexual intercourse. Hepatitis B, HIV and syphilis may also be transmitted in contaminated blood and blood products, by contaminated syringes and needles used for injection, and potentially by unsterilized instruments used for acupuncture, piercing and tattooing. Nature of the diseases: Most of the clinical manifestations are included in the following syndromes: genital ulcer, pelvic inflammatory disease, urethral discharge and vaginal discharge. However, many infections are asymptomatic. Sexually transmitted infections are a major cause of acute illness, infertility, long-term disability and death, with severe medical and psychological consequences for millions of men, women and children. Apart from being serious diseases in their own right, sexually transmitted infections increase the risk of HIV infection. The presence of an untreated disease (ulcerative or non-ulcerative) can increase by a factor of up to 10 the risk of becoming infected with HIV and transmitting the infection. On the other hand, early diagnosis and improved management of other sexually transmitted infections can reduce the incidence of HIV infection by up to 40%. Prevention and treatment of all sexually transmitted infections are therefore important for the prevention of HIV infection. Geographical distribution: Worldwide. Sexually transmitted infections have been known since ancient times; they remain a major public health problem, which was compounded by the appearance of HIV/AIDS around 1980. An estimated 340 million episodes of curable sexually transmitted infections (chlamydial infections, gonorrhoea, syphilis, trichomoniasis) occur throughout the world every year. Viral infections, which are more difficult to treat, are also very common in many populations. Genital herpes is becoming a major cause of genital ulcer, and subtypes of the human papillomavirus are associated with cervical cancer. Risk for travellers: For some travellers there may be an increased risk of infection. Lack of information about risk and preventive measures and the fact that travel and tourism enhance the probability of having sex with casual partners increase the risk of exposure to sexually transmitted infections. In some developed countries, a large proportion of sexually transmitted infections now occur as a result of unprotected sexual intercourse during international travel. In addition to transmission through sexual intercourse (both heterosexual and homosexual-anal, vaginal or oral), most of these infections can be passed on from an infected mother to her unborn or newborn baby. Hepatitis B, HIV and syphilis are also transmitted through transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products and the use of contaminated needles. There is no risk of acquiring any sexually transmitted infection from casual day-to-day contact at home, at work or socially. People run no risk of infection when sharing any means of communal transport (e.g. aircraft, boat, bus, car, train) with infected individuals. There is no evidence that HIV or other sexually transmitted infections can be acquired from insect bites. Prophylaxis: There is a vaccination against hepatitis B. No prophylaxis is available for any of the other sexually transmitted diseases. Precautions: Male or female condoms, when properly used, have proved to be effective in preventing the transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections, and for reducing the risk of unwanted pregnancy. Latex rubber condoms are relatively inexpensive, are highly reliable and have virtually no side-effects. The transmission of HIV and other infections during sexual intercourse can be effectively prevented when high-quality condoms are used correctly and consistently. Studies on serodiscordant couples (only one of whom is HIV-positive) have shown that, with regular sexual intercourse over a period of two years, partners who consistently use condoms have a near-zero risk of HIV infection. A man should always use a condom during sexual intercourse, each time, from start to finish, and a woman should make sure that her partner uses one. A woman can also protect herself from sexually transmitted infections by using a female condom - essentially, a vaginal pouch, which is now commercially available in some countries. It is essential to avoid injecting drugs for non-medical purposes, and particularly to avoid any type of needle-sharing to reduce the risk of acquiring hepatitis, HIV, syphilis and other infections from contaminated needles and blood. Medical injections using unsterilized equipment are also a possible source of infection. If an injection is essential, the traveller should try to ensure that the needles and syringes come from a sterile package or have been sterilized properly by steam or boiling water for 20 minutes. Patients under medical care who require frequent injections, e.g. diabetics, should carry sufficient sterile needles and syringes for the duration of their trip and a doctor's authorization for their use. Unsterile dental and surgical instruments, needles used in acupuncture and tattooing, ear-piercing devices, and other skin-piercing instruments can likewise transmit infection and should be avoided. Treatment: Travellers with signs or symptoms of a sexually transmitted disease should cease all sexual activity and seek medical care immediately. The absence of symptoms does not guarantee absence of infection, and travellers exposed to unprotected sex should be tested for infection on returning home. HIV testing should always be voluntary and with counselling. The sexually transmitted infections caused by bacteria, e.g. chancroid, chlamydia, gonorrhoea and syphilis, can be treated successfully, but there is no single antimicrobial that is effective against more than one or two of them. Moreover, throughout the world, many of these bacteria are showing increased resistance to penicillin and other antimicrobials. Treatment for sexually transmitted viral infections, e.g. hepatitis B, genital herpes and genital warts, is unsatisfactory due to lack of specific medication, and cure is difficult to achieve. The same is true of HIV infection, which in its late stage causes AIDS and is thought to be invariably fatal. Antiretroviral drugs cannot completely eradicate the HIV virus; treatment is expensive and complex and most countries have only a few centres that are able to provide it. Source: WHO.
Back to TopHepatitis B
Cause: Hepatitis B virus (HBV), belonging to the Hepadnaviridae. Transmission: Hepatitis B is transmitted from person to person by contact with infected body fluids. Sexual contact is an important mode of transmission, but infection is also transmitted by transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products, or by use of contaminated needles or syringes for injections. There is also a potential risk of Hepatitis B transmission through other skin-penetrating procedures including acupuncture, piercing and tattooing. Perinatal transmission may occur from mother to baby. There is no insect vector or animal reservoir. Nature of the disease: Many HBV infections are asymptomatic (e.g. causes no symptoms) or cause mild symptoms, which are often unrecognised in adults. When clinical hepatitis results from infection, it has a gradual onset, with anorexia, abdominal discomfort, nausea, vomiting, arthralgia and rash, followed by the development of jaundice in some cases. In adults, about 1% of cases are fatal. Chronic HBV infection persists in a proportion of adults, some of whom later develop cirrhosis and/or liver cancer. Geographical distribution: Worldwide, but with differing levels of endemicity. In north America, Australia, northern and western Europe and New Zealand, prevalence of chronic HBV infection is relatively low (less than 2% of the general population). Risk for travellers: Negligible for those vaccinated against hepatitis B. Unvaccinated travellers are at risk if they have unprotected sex or use contaminated needles or syringes for injection, acupuncture, piercing or tattooing. An accident or medical emergency requiring blood transfusion may result in infection if the blood has not been screened for HBV. Travellers engaged in humanitarian relief activities may be exposed to infected blood or other body fluids in health care settings. Prophylaxis (protective treatment): Vaccination. Precautions: Adopt safe sexual practices and avoid the use of any potentially contaminated instruments for injection or other skin-piercing activity. Source: WHO.
Back to TopHepatitis A
Cause: Hepatitis A virus, a member of the picornavirus family. Transmission: The virus is acquired directly from infected persons by the faecal-oral route or by close contact, or by consumption of contaminated food or drinking water. There is no insect vector or animal reservoir (although some non-human primates are sometimes infected). Nature of the disease: An acute viral hepatitis with abrupt onset of fever, malaise, nausea and abdominal discomfort, followed by the development of jaundice a few days later. Infection in very young children is usually mild or asymptomatic (e.g. causes no symptoms); older children are at risk of symptomatic disease. The disease is more severe in adults, with illness lasting several weeks and recovery taking several months; case-fatality is greater than 2% for those over 40 years of age and 4% for those over 60. Geographical distribution: Worldwide, but most common where sanitary conditions are poor and the safety of drinking water is not well controlled. Risk for travellers: Non-immune travellers to developing countries are at significant risk of infection. The risk is particularly high for travellers exposed to poor conditions of hygiene, sanitation and drinking water control. Prophylaxis (protective treatment): Vaccination. Precautions: Travellers who are non-immune to hepatitis A (i.e. have never had the disease and have not been vaccinated) should take particular care to avoid potentially contaminated food and water. Source: WHO.
Back to TopDengue Fever
Cause: The dengue virus - a flavivirus of which there are four serotypes. Transmission: Dengue fever is transmitted by the Aedes aegypti mosquito, which bites during daylight hours. There is no direct person-to-person transmission. Monkeys act as a reservoir host in south-east Asia and west Africa. Nature of the disease: Dengue occurs in three main clinical forms: Dengue fever is an acute febrile illness with sudden onset of fever, followed by development of generalized symptoms and sometimes a macular skin rash. It is known as "breakbone fever" because of severe muscular pains. The fever may be biphasic (i.e. two separate episodes or waves of fever). Most patients recover after a few days; Dengue haemorrhagic fever has an acute onset of fever followed by other symptoms resulting from thrombocytopenia, increased vascular permeability and haemorrhagic manifestations; Dengue shock syndrome supervenes in a small proportion of cases. Severe hypotension develops, requiring urgent medical treatment to correct hypovolaemia. Without appropriate treatment, 40-50% of cases are fatal; with timely therapy, the mortality rate is 1% or less. Geographical distribution: Dengue fever is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions of central and south America and south and south-east Asia and also occurs in Africa; in these regions, dengue is limited to altitudes below 600 metres (2,000 feet). Risk for travellers: There is a significant risk for travellers in areas where dengue fever is endemic and in areas affected by epidemics of dengue. Prophylaxis (protective treatment): None. Precautions: Travellers should take precautions to avoid mosquito bites both during the day and at night in areas where dengue occurs. Source: WHO.
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